The Difference Between Radiation and Radioactivity

Radioactivity and radiation are often used interchangeably, but they describe different (yet related) processes.

But before going into this difference, it's useful to understand what atoms are and a few concepts about how they behave.

An atom is the smallest particle that can be described as a chemical. Smaller particles aren't chemicals in the same way that wheels, windscreens and seats aren't cars – they are parts of them, but you need a few to make the whole.

At the centre of each atom is a nucleus, containing a number of protons (positively charged particles). The number of protons determines what chemical the atom is. All carbon nuclei contain six protons – it is what defines them as carbon nuclei. Five protons would be a boron atom, seven protons a nitrogen atom.

The nucleus also contains a number of neutrons (particle with no charge). Atoms of the same chemical can have different numbers of neutrons. Some 99% of carbon atoms have six neutrons, when added to the six protons this gives an atomic mass of 12.

Some carbon atoms have more or fewer neutrons – seven neutrons makes carbon-13 and eight for carbon-14. The nuclei of carbon-12 and carbon-13 are stable, but carbon-14 is radioactive and is the basis of radiocarbon dating.

Atoms of the same chemical with different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes.

Surrounding the nucleus are very small negatively charged particles called electrons. These are held in place (called orbitals) by their attraction to the positively charged nucleus. An atom contains as many electrons as protons.

Adding or removing an electron from the atom results in a charged particle, called an ion. Ions can react very differently to atoms. A chlorine atom is very reactive and dangerous; a chloride ion is part of table salt. This becomes important when talking about ionising radiation later.

So, what is radioactivity?

Radioactivity is the term given to the breaking-up (decay) or rearrangement of an atom's nucleus. Decay occurs naturally and spontaneously to unstable nuclei. This instability is usually caused by a mismatch between the number of protons and neutrons.

Radioactive decay can occur in several ways, with the more common ones being:
spontaneous fission: also known as "splitting the atom" as the nucleus breaks into two parts:

neutron release: a neutron is ejected from the core of the atom
alpha decay: the nucleus releases an alpha particle (a helium-4 nucleus) consisting of two neutrons and two protons

beta decay: the nucleus ejects an electron (or a positron). Note: this is not the same as an electron being removed from orbitals around the nucleus

gamma decay: the protons and neutrons within the nucleus rearrange into a more stable form, and energy is emitted as a gamma ray.

Neutron release, alpha and beta decay are all accompanied by the release of a particle. It is the particle (or the gamma ray in gamma decay) that is the "radiation" associated with radioactivity.

What is a 'half-life'?

Let's say we have 4,000 coins and we want to flip them all, which will take (for the sake of the argument) one minute. All of those that land heads are thrown away. By the law of averages, we should have 2,000 coins (half) remaining.

If we then take another minute to flip all of those coins and discard the heads, we will be left with 1,000 coins. And again, taking another minute to flip the 1,000 coins, we will be left with 500 coins.

You'll notice we take the same length of time to flip all the coins, no matter how many of them there are.

In the case of radioactivity, this time is not an artificial constraint, but a fundamental property of each nucleus – that in a given time, it has a 50/50 chance of spontaneously decaying. The name given to the length of time it takes for half the atoms in a sample to decay is called the "half-life".

The half-life of an isotope is the same for all nuclei of that type (all carbon-14 nuclei have a half-life of about 5,750 years and all carbon-15 nuclei have a half life of about 2.5 seconds).

If we perform the coin flip ten times we will be left with four coins – one thousandth of the starting number. This is important because it is considered that after ten half-lives there is a negligible amount of material remaining.

If a material has a long half-life (such as uranium-238's 4.5 billion years half-life – about the age of the Earth), it is not very radioactive. A material with a short half-life (polonium-210's 138 days) is very radioactive.

What's the difference between radioactivity and radiation?

As we have seen, radioactive decay is a property of a particular nucleus. In comparison, radiation is a possible consequence of many processes, not just radioactivity.

Radiation is the term given to a travelling particle or wave and can be split into three main types:
non-ionising radiation: essentially the low-energy parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. This includes all the light you see, radio waves (also known as microwaves – as in the oven) and infrared ("heat" radiation). Ultra violet falls into the high energy end of this category.
ionising radiation: radiation that can remove an electron from its orbital
neutrons: free neutron particles that can collide with other atoms.

Non-ionising radiation is mostly damaging in obvious ways. Exposure to microwaves or infrared waves causes susceptible materials to heat up. Alternatively, ionising radiation can be less obvious but, by changing an atom into a more reactive ion, can create longer lasting damage.

Ionising radiation falls into two main forms:
high-energy electromagnetic radiation: including X-ray and gamma rays
particle radiation: alpha and beta particles.

These different forms of ionising radiation differ in their capacity to do damage and their ability to penetrate materials.

Ionising electromagnetic radiation
X-rays and gamma rays are penetrating, ionising radiation and are are essentially the same thing. (The difference in terminology is usually that gamma rays come from nuclear decay, while X-rays come from electron orbitals.)

These wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation contain enough energy to push an electron out of its orbit around the atom – yet again forming an ion. They are stopped by very dense materials such as lead or large amounts of earth or concrete.

Particle radiation

Particle radiation is potentially very harmful, but is relatively easy to block.

Alpha particles, with two neutrons and two protons, are essentially helium ions. These can strip the electrons from another atom in order to become helium atoms. Beta particles are simply free electrons that can be captured by atoms just like any other electron.

Luckily, protection from these is reasonably easy. Alpha particles are blocked by a piece of paper, and beta particles by a few millimetres of metal or an equivalent amount of plastic.

Neutrons are more penetrating and so are potentially more dangerous. They cause damage by being captured by the nucleus of an atom. This can cause the atom to break in two (fission) or undergo another decay process (known as transmutation).

In either case, the original atom (say a nitrogen atom) is changed to become a different type of atom (in this case, carbon-14). The new atom will have different chemical properties and therefore could act as a poison, or for building materials change their physical properties.

Neutrons are either slowed down or captured safely by materials such as graphite or compounds containing lots of hydrogen (such as tap water!).

All of these forms of radioactivity and radiation are naturally occurring. They make up what is known as background radiation. The web comic xkcd gives a good visual representation of what those numbers look like.

Radiation Alerts Hits U.S. Cities

A private organization that monitors radiation data from network points across the United States issued email alerts today for two Western U.S. cities, Reno, Nev., and St. George, Utah.

The alerts came from the the Nuclear Emergency Tracking Center, which explains its mission is to provide radiation monitoring information from hundreds of sites in Japan and the U.S., including those run by the Environmental Protection Agency.

The warning pinpointed an area “of concern” in St. George, Utah, where background radiation levels more than doubled today from the typical reading.

In Reno, “the current background radiation level has increased suddenly by more than 200 points from the typical average.”

The report said the “counts per minute” at St. George reach an all-time high of 456, while the average is 222 with a normal deviation of 55.

In Reno, the CPM suddenly surged to 462. The all time high is 542. The average is 279 with a deviation of 56.2.

NETC.com founder Harlan Yother told WND he’s seeing more and more surges of radiation. Levels have risen along the West Coast, then moved east. The movement always follows by two or three days a rise in levels in Japan, home of the Fukushima nuclear reactor disaster in 2011, he said.

A previous alert, Nov. 26, cited the Fukishima nuclear disaster, where a power plant was struck first by an earthquake, then by a tidal wave created by the undersea quake.

Several of the reactors at Fukushima melted down and exploded, releasing massive doses of radiation into the air and water.

Yother said the records show that Seattle, which once was one of the lowest radiation reporting sites in the nation, has been rising since the disaster.

“We can tell it has been increasing,” he said.

Officials with the Utah and Nevada offices of emergency management did not immediately respond to WND questions about the readings. Nor did the Department of Homeland Security.

The website offered basic advice for when radiation levels rise.

“You may wish to close windows in your home or office to keep radiation out, and remove shoes upon entering your home, perhaps rinsing them off so as not to track radiation into the home. You may also consider using near-the-door coat racks to hang external coats or jackets you wore outside so as to keep any radiation that may have accumulated upon them, in one location and not have it throughout your home.”

The Fukushima disaster developed in the aftermath of the March 11, 2011, quake. The cooling equipment at the plant failed, allowing the reactors to melt down. It was the largest nuclear disaster since the Chernobyl meltdown in 1986. It was the second disaster, along with Chernobyl, to measure Level 7 on the International Nuclear Event Scale.

Russia Today reported yesterday that Tokyo is looking to spent $970 million to store 130,000 tons of contaminated soil dug out from near the crippled power plant.

The government also wants to buy up to five square kilometers of land to build a storage facility.

The plant was designed by General Electric and run by the Tokyo Electric Power Company. Last July, the plant reportedly was leaking tons of heavily contaminated water into the Pacific.

In addition to the email alert, the NETC.com map showed four concern points in the Western United States, three in California and one inland a few hundred miles.

They were listed at Radcon 4, only one step from an alert, the map showed.

Iran to Launch Nuclear Radiation System

TEHRAN (FNA)- The Atomic Energy Organization of Iran plans to launch a nuclear radiation system for the first time in the country, an AEOI official announced on Saturday.

“A pilot project of this system will come into operation in several provinces soon,” Head of the AEOI’s Laser and Optic Research Center Abbas Majdabadi told FNA on Saturday.

He explained that this nuclear radiation system will have many applications in the agricultural sector and in improving the quality and life-time of agricultural products.

“This nuclear fusion radiation system has applications in agriculture and can prevent germination of, for instance, onion and potato through the Gama radiation technique,” he said.

Majdabadi said due to its numerous agricultural applications and benefits, the home-made radiation system will be used in various Iranian provinces, specially in the Northern Gilan province where a wide range of agricultural products are planted.

Last week, the AEOI Chief Ali Akbar Salehi stressed during a meeting with the members of the parliament's Education Commission that the AEOI would continue research in various nuclear fields.

“The lawmakers asked questions about nuclear research and development and Mr. Salehi reiterated that no research will be halted” due to the recent agreement between Tehran and the six world powers, member of the parliament’s Education Commission Alireza Salimi told FNA after the commission meeting.

According to Salimi, Salehi reiterated that if Iran did not have its current position in science and technology, the enemy would not sit to the negotiating table with it.

“Mr. Salehi told the commission members that we could manage the negotiations (with the world powers) still in a better way to find an upper hand,” Salimi said.

GAO Wants Radiation Guidelines for Terrorism in U.S. Cities

Japan’s panicked Fukushima evacuation of some 130,000 persons was unnecessary, but it serves as a great warning for us. For most of the evacuees, their first year exposure was about 2 REMs of radiation, fifty times below where it causes illness. Some were exposed to 22 REMs, still far below the sickness level of 100 REMs. Yet the Japanese were basically followingAmerican civil defense guidelines. Irrational fear of radiation permeates Washington’s civil defense and nuclear regulatory guidelines. There is an argument that virtually any radiation might eventually cause cancer in some people. The Wall Street Journal link above calculates a possible 194 excess cancers among the Fukushima population, however 1,600 persons died from the forced evacuation.


The report’s conclusion, What GAO Found, urges “that FEMA develop guidance to clarify the early response capabilities needed by cities for RDD (radiological dispersal device) and IND (improvised nuclear device) attacks. FEMA did not concur with this recommendation. GAO believes that gaps in early response abilities warrant federal attention and has clarified its recommendation.”Fortunately, the GAO recently published a revant report in September: NUCLEAR TERRORISM RESPONSE PLANS:Major Cities Could Benefit from Federal Guidance on Responding to Nuclear and Radiological Attacks. It details dangerous ignorance by most cities’ officials which “could lead to a disjointed and untimely response that might increase the consequences of attack.” The “GAO found that federal guidance on the type and timing of such assistance is not readily available or understood by all emergency managers” and that “cities may not have the information they need to adequately prepare for and respond to them. This could lead to complications that result in greater loss of life and economic impacts.”

These concerns may have come about because of more and more reports that the forced evacuation in Fukushima was not necessary. The panicked Japanese authorities were apparently following old American guidelines under the ALARA policy. ALARA means As Low as Reasonably Achievable which, in practice, has been interpreted as meaning that any radiation is dangerous. The threshold was established after World War II and then used by the EPA to set a 15 millirem limit as the danger exposure level for nearly everything from civil defense to reactors and nuclear waste disposal sites. Actual threats to health starts at 100 REM. The EPA is now considering a 50 REM threat level. In Japan not a single person died from radiation, and hardly any got ill, even among the emergency nuclear workers at the reactor.

The fact that FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Administration) did not agree with the GAO's call for clarified guidance may not just be government inertia. It could also be because of strong resistance from extreme environmentalists who oppose any modification of old rules about what radiation levels are actually dangerous. EPA is working on new guidelines for exposure risk from terrorist attacks. Its formal 90 day public comment period expired on July 15(since extended to Sept 15th) and the report has still not been issued. Extreme environmentalists are already opposing any modifications.

If the EPA and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (which incidentally contributed to the panic in Japan by urging Americans up to 50 miles away to flee the whole area) propose substantial changes in limits, it could bring into question the whole excessive fear level about the use of nuclear energy and nuclear waste disposal. Furthermore it could challenge other far-out EPA limits on dust, mercury, lead, and all sorts of other chemicals and minerals based on the theory of “linear no threshold theory.” Their cost to the American economy in lost jobs, shut down factories and mines is stupendous. EPA models are largely based on this theory, namely that even the tiniest exposure—e.g. parts per billion—will eventually produce illness, mainly cancers, in some people. An article in Forbes explains why the theory is fallacious. The costs of EPA enforcement of its old models are in the hundreds of billions—the Wall Street Journal reports that the cost for cleaning up 130 contaminated nuclear sites is $350 billion.

For more details on measuring radiation, civil defense and consequences of the linear no threshold theory, please see my earlier article "Terrorism and Radiation, Understanding the Real Threat to Our Cities."

Ignorance in the national media is equally pervasive. Witness the recent reports that radioactive water was leaking into the ocean from Fukushima. Almost nowhere did one see any explanation or questioning of the amounts of radiation, whether they were dangerous or simply negligible. Finally the Washington Post published some details explaining the perceived dangers, but still using the old radiation limits. The Japan Times has published some realistic information about fish and radiation. The New York Times recently published an op-ed, Taming Radiation Fears, calling for less panic and better understanding.

In 2004 I wrote "Thoughts on Terrorist Targets" arguing that Bin Laden would not waste his resources on small targets, that his objectives were major ports, infrastructure or symbolic ones. However, with his death and now the proliferation of little Al Qaeda cells with angry young men, humiliated and enraged by what they see as America’s unjust killing of Muslims, the threat has changed. Since Boston’s attack we now know that just a few can launch terrorism inside America. The Boston bombing was done by two men, the recent Kenya shopping mall attack, by half a dozen or a few more. A nuclear device or “dirty bomb” is beyond the capability of most, but one day there will surely be such an attack.

The greatest threat from terrorism is what Washington, in reaction, does to America. We were spared in Boston, but need to pay attention now. Thankfully the GAO report is a good start.

Regulators call for radiation dose management on individual basis in Japan

The Nuclear Regulation Authority on Wednesday decided to propose to a government task force that the management of radiation doses on an individual basis is vital to working out measures to protect people seeking to return to their homes after the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant disaster.

The proposal is expected to bring about a change in the government's policy of using "estimated" personal doses, calculated from air dose levels measured by radiation monitoring posts and other sources, when setting evacuation zones and other protective steps.

But as radiation exposure measured by individual dosimeters tends to be lower than estimated doses, the latest move could effectively mean a relaxation of the rules, making it easier for the government to achieve its long-term goal of reducing exposure doses to 1 millisievert per year in contaminated areas.

Estimated doses are calculated on the assumption that an individual remains eight hours outdoors and 16 hours indoors.

NRA Chairman Shunichi Tanaka said at a meeting of NRA commissioners that grasping individual doses is "essential" when evacuees return homes, because each person's lifestyle is different.

"Individual doses differ, and that could affect health," he said.

The proposal also called on the government to present a road map showing the timeline for measures it will implement to help people decide whether to return to their homes as well as to support those who decide to do so.

The measures include creating a team of counselors for each community that will help residents take radiation protection measures based on their dosimeter readings and respond to their concerns.

More than two years have passed since the Fukushima crisis was triggered by a huge earthquake and tsunami, but around 150,000 Fukushima Prefecture residents still live as evacuees.

In August, the government finished reclassifying areas where evacuation orders are in place to three categories based on radiation levels -- a zone where evacuation orders are ready to be lifted, a zone where habitation is restricted and a zone where residents will have difficulties in returning for a long time.

Decontamination efforts are being made but there has not been a case in which an evacuation order has been lifted.

Japan Rolls Out $800 Radiation-Proof Underwear, Wetsuits

A Japanese swimsuit maker has just unveiled a new line of anti-radiation underwear and wetsuits that can protect you from contamination. With Fukushima still very much at the forefront of everyone’s mind, these special line of clothes are designed to protect people from harmful beta ang gamma rays. The Yamamoto Corporation, who is behind this new endeavor, designed the products for workers and those helping clean up after the disaster, but we can easily imagine these being worn by many other people who are concerned about another nuclear meltdown.

DEP Secretary: regulating radiation may be “next frontier” of drilling oversight

The state Department of Environmental Protection’s acting Secretary Chris Abruzzo says regulating the radioactive materials associated with gas drilling could be the “next frontier” of the agency’s oversight of the industry.

In an interview with the Scranton Times-Tribune, Abruzzo says the DEP is still in the midst of its year-long study into naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) and technologically enhanced material (TENORM).

“It will depend largely on what the results [of the study] show us,” Abruzzo told the newspaper. “It certainly has the potential to be the next frontier in terms of regulations coming out.”

Although the DEP says it’s unlikely there is a threat to public health, concerns about radioactivity associated with oil and gas development persist.

A study published last month in the journal of Environmental Science and Technology found high levels of radiation and salinity in a creek near a drilling wastewater treatment facility in western Pennsylvania.

After submitting a lengthy criticism about the DEP’s radiation study, two organizations representing the state’s oil and gas industry announced last week they will launch their own review of radioactive materials associated with their work.